Disorders due to use of volatile inhalants

Description

Disorders due to use of volatile inhalants are characterised by the pattern and consequences of volatile inhalant use. Volatile inhalants include a range of compounds that are in the gaseous or vapour phase at ambient temperatures and include various organic solvents, glues, gasoline (petrol), nitrites and gases such as nitrous oxide, trichloroethane, butane, toluene, fluorocarbons, ether and halothane. They have a range of pharmacological properties but are predominantly central nervous system depressants, with many also having vasoactive effects. They tend to be used by younger persons and may be used when access to alternative psychoactive substances is difficult or impossible. Volatile Inhalant Intoxication is well recognized. Volatile inhalants have dependence-producing properties and Volatile Inhalant Dependence and Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal is recognized although comparatively uncommon worldwide. Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorders are described. They may also cause neurocognitive impairment, including Dementia. [1]

Diagnostic requirements

WHO clinical descriptions and diagnostic requirements [1,2].

Subcategories

• 6C4B.0 Episode of harmful use of volatile inhalants

  An episode of volatile inhalant use or unintentional exposure (e.g., occupational exposure) that has caused damage to a person’s physical or mental health or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others. Harm to health of the individual occurs due to one or more of the following: (1) behaviour related to intoxication; (2) direct or secondary toxic effects on body organs and systems; or (3) a harmful route of administration. Harm to health of others includes any form of physical harm, including trauma, or mental disorder that is directly attributable to behaviour due to volatile inhalant intoxication on the part of the person to whom the diagnosis of single episode of harmful use applies. This diagnosis should not be made if the harm is attributed to a known pattern of volatile inhalant use. [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • An episode of use of volatile inhalants that has caused clinically significant damage to a person’s physical health or mental health (e.g., Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mood Disorder), or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others.
  • Harm to health of the individual occurs due to one or more of the following: (1) behaviour related to intoxication; (2) direct or secondary toxic effects on body organs and systems; or (3) a harmful route of administration.
  • Harm to health of others includes any form of physical harm, including trauma, or mental disorder that is directly attributable to behaviour due to Volatile Inhalant Intoxication on the part of the person to whom the diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants applies.
  • Harm to health is not better accounted for by another medical condition or another mental disorder, including another Disorder Due to Substance Use (e.g., Substance Withdrawal).

  Note: Harm to the health of the person to whom the diagnosis applies includes injuries caused by behaviour related to intoxication (e.g., impulsive aggressive behaviour, psychomotor impairment leading to injury), acute health problems resulting from substance use (e.g., overdose, acute gastritis, the effects of hypoxia or prolonged hyperactivity or inactivity), and exacerbation or decompensation of pre-existing chronic health problems (e.g., hypertension, liver disease, or peptic ulceration). Harm may also result from a harmful route of administration (e.g., injecting drug use causing blood-borne virus infections, cocaine use causing a perforated nasal septum). The relevant diagnostic codes from other chapters of the ICD-11, including the chapter on Injury, Poisoning or Certain Other Consequences of External Causes, should be used to describe the specific health consequences of the harmful substance use.

  Harm to the health of others includes any form of physical harm, including trauma (e.g., impaired driving causing a motor vehicle accident, assaultive behaviour leading to bodily harm to another person) or mental disorder (e.g., Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder arising from an assault by the intoxicated individual) that is directly attributable to behaviour due to substance intoxication on the part of the person to whom the diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Psychoactive Substance Use applies.

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • There must be explicit evidence of harm to the individual’s physical or mental health, or of substance-related behaviour due to intoxication that has led to harm to the physical or mental health of others. There must also be a clear causal relationship between the harm to health and the episode of volatile inhalant use in question.
  • The likelihood of harm to self or others due behaviour related to intoxication varies substantially by substance. For example, such behaviour is unlikely to arise from caffeine or nicotine intoxication.
  • Volatile Inhalant use commonly occurs in the context of other mental disorders. An additional diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants can be made if the index episode of volatile inhalant use has resulted in clinically significant harm to the individual’s physical health or has exacerbated or triggered an episode of a pre-existing mental disorder (e.g., a Manic or Depressive Episode or a psychotic episode).
  • A diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants often signals an opportunity for intervention, typically a low intensity intervention that can be implemented in a wide range of settings that is specifically aimed at reducing the likelihood of additional harmful episodes or of progression to Harmful Pattern of Use or Volatile Inhalant Dependence.
  • As more information becomes available indicating that the episode is part of a continuous or recurrent pattern of volatile inhalant use, or if additional harmful episodes occur, a diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants should be changed to Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants or Volatile Inhalant Dependence, as appropriate.

  Boundary with Normality (Threshold):

  • The diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants requires clinically significant harm to the individual’s physical or mental health or that of others. Examples of impact on physical or mental health that would not be considered clinically significant include mild hangover, brief episodes of vomiting, or transient depressed mood.
  • A range of social problems may be associated with an episode of substance use that are not sufficiently severe to constitute clinically significant harm to physical or mental health (e.g., missed appointments, arguments with loved ones)- Such problems are not a sufficient basis for a diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants.

  Boundaries with Other Disorders and Conditions (Differential Diagnosis):

  • Boundary with Hazardous Substance Use: Hazardous Substance Use is classified in the chapter on ‘Factors Influencing Health Status or Contact with Health Services’ in the ICD-11 and not in the chapter on Mental, Behavioural, and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Hazardous Substance Use appreciably increases the risk of harmful physical or mental health consequences to the user or to others to an extent that warrants attention and advice from health professionals, but has not resulted in specific identifiable harm and therefore does not meet the diagnostic requirements for Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants.
  • Boundary with Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants: If the harm to health is a result of a known episodic or continuous pattern of substance use and all other diagnostic requirements are met, a diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants should be assigned. Substance use is generally considered to be following a pattern if there has been at least episodic or intermittent use over a period of at least 12 months. If harm is caused by use of volatile inhalants but no information is available about the pattern or history of substance use, a diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants may be assigned until such time as evidence for a pattern of use is ascertained.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant Dependence: In Volatile Inhalant Dependence, individuals use volatile inhalants persistently despite harm and adverse consequences. Harm caused by such use may be similar to that observed in Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants. However, Volatile Inhalant Dependence also includes additional features of impaired ability to control use and increasing priority given to the substance use over other activities. Physiological features (e.g., tolerance) may also be present. If all diagnostic requirements for Volatile Inhalant Dependence are met, Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants should not be assigned.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant Intoxication: Volatile Inhalant Intoxication is defined by volatile inhalant use that results in clinically significant transient volatile inhalant-specific symptoms. Recovery from Volatile Inhalant Intoxication is generally complete and without physical or mental sequelae. If there is continuing damage or harm (e.g., the effects of hypoxia, the effects of prolonged hyperactivity or inactivity, tissue damage) due to an episode of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication, a diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants may be assigned. If relevant at the time of the clinical encounter (e.g., in emergency settings), Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants may be diagnosed with an associated diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorders: Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorders can be associated with a single episode of volatile inhalant use. If a Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorder has occurred as a form of harm resulting from a single episode of volatile inhalant use, both Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants and the relevant Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorder should be diagnosed (e.g., Episode of Harmful Volatile Inhalant Use with Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder).
  • Boundary with overdose: When ingestion of psychoactive substances results in symptoms of overdose (e.g., coma; life-threatening cardiac or respiratory suppression), a diagnosis from the grouping of Harmful Effects of Substances in the chapter on Injury, Poisoning or Certain Other Consequences of External Causes should also be assigned.
• 6C4B.1 Harmful pattern of use of volatile inhalants

  A pattern of volatile inhalant use that has caused damage to a person’s physical or mental health. The pattern of volatile inhalant use is evident over a period of at least 12 months if substance use is episodic or at least one month if use is continuous (i.e., daily or almost daily). Harm to health of the individual occurs due to one or more of the following: (1) behaviour related to intoxication; (1) direct or secondary toxic effects on body organs and systems; or (2) a harmful route of administration. Harm to health of others includes any form of physical harm, including trauma, or mental disorder that is directly attributable to behaviour related to volatile inhalant intoxication on the part of the person to whom the diagnosis of Harmful pattern of use of volatile inhalants applies. [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • A pattern of continuous, recurrent, or sporadic use of volatile inhalants that has caused clinically significant damage to a person’s physical health or mental health (e.g., Volatile Inhalants-Induced Mood Disorder), or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others.
  • Harm to health of the individual occurs due to one or more of the following: (1) behaviour related to intoxication; (2) direct or secondary toxic effects on body organs and systems; or (3) a harmful route of administration.
  • Harm to health of others includes any form of physical harm, including trauma, or mental disorder that is directly attributable to behaviour related to substance intoxication on the part of the person to whom the diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants applies.
  • The pattern of volatile inhalant use is evident over a period of at least 12 months if volatile inhalant use is episodic or at least 1 month if use is continuous.
  • Harm to health is not better accounted for by another medical condition or another mental disorder, including another Disorder Due to Substance Use (e.g., Substance Withdrawal).

  Note: Harm to the health of the person to whom the diagnosis applies includes injuries caused by behaviour related to intoxication (e.g., impulsive aggressive behaviour, psychomotor impairment leading to injury; acute health problems resulting from substance use (e.g., overdose, acute gastritis, the effects of hypoxia or prolonged hyperactivity or inactivity), and exacerbation or decompensation of pre-existing chronic health problems (e.g., hypertension, liver disease, or peptic ulceration). Harm may also result from a harmful route of administration (e.g., injecting drug use causing blood-borne virus infections, cocaine use causing a perforated nasal septum). The relevant diagnostic codes from other chapters of the ICD-11, including the chapter on Injury, Poisoning or Certain Other Consequences of External Causes, should be used to describe the specific health consequences of the harmful substance use.

  Harm to the health of others includes any form of physical harm, including trauma (e.g., impaired driving causing a motor vehicle accident, assaultive behaviour leading to bodily harm to another person) or mental disorder (e.g., Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder arising from an assault by the intoxicated individual) that is directly attributable to behaviour due to substance intoxication on the part of the person to whom the diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Psychoactive Substance Use applies.

  Course Specifiers:

  A specifier is used to further describe the harmful pattern of substance use, using a fifth-digit code. The fourth-digit code indicates the substance class (i.e., B for volatile inhalants).

  6C4B.10 Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants, episodic

  This category is assigned when all the diagnostic requirements for Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants are met and there is evidence of a pattern of recurrent episodic or intermittent use of volatile inhalants over a period of at least 12 months that has caused clinically significant harm to a person’s physical or mental health or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others.

  6C4B.11 Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants, continuous

  This category is assigned when all the diagnostic requirements for Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants are met and there is evidence of a pattern of continuous volatile inhalant use (daily or almost daily) over a period of at least 1 month that has caused clinically significant harm to a person’s physical or mental health or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others.

  6C4B.1Z Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants, unspecified

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • There must be explicit evidence of harm to the individual’s physical or mental health, or of related behaviour due to Volatile Inhalant Intoxication that has led to harm to the physical or mental health of others. There must also be a clear causal relationship between the harm to health and the episodic or continuous use of volatile inhalants.
  • The likelihood of harm to self or others due behaviour related to intoxication varies substantially by substance. For example, such behaviour is unlikely to arise from caffeine or nicotine intoxication.
  • As more information becomes available about symptoms and behaviours related to the pattern of volatile inhalant use as well as physiological features indicative of neuroadaptation to the substance, the diagnosis may be changed to Volatile Inhalant Dependence if diagnostic requirements are met.

  Boundary with Normality (Threshold):

  • The diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants requires clinically significant harm to the individual’s physical or mental health or that of others. Examples of impact on physical or mental health that would not be considered clinically significant include mild hangovers, brief episodes of vomiting, or transient depressed mood.
  • A pattern of volatile inhalant use may cause a range of problems in functioning (e.g., missed appointments, arguments with loved ones) that are not sufficiently severe to constitute clinically significant harm to physical or mental health. Such problems are not a sufficient basis for a diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants.

  Developmental Presentations:

  • Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants is often a characteristic of late adolescence and young adulthood, and injuries and the consequences of aggressive behaviour are particularly common in this age group.
  • Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants in older adults may cause injuries and fractures due to the combination of lowered tolerance, psychomotor impairment induced by a substance, and disorders associated with ageing such as osteoporosis and Dementia.

  Sex- and/or Gender-Related Features:

  • The prevalence of Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants is higher in males than females, but the gender differential is smaller in countries where women play a greater role in the workforce. Gender differences in injuries and other forms of harm due to substance use are recognized.

  Boundaries with Other Disorders and Conditions (Differential Diagnosis):

  • Boundary with Hazardous Use of Volatile Inhalants: Hazardous Use of Volatile Inhalants is classified in the chapter on ‘Factors Influencing Health Status or Contact with Health Services’ in the ICD-11 and not in the chapter on Mental, Behavioural, and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Hazardous Use of Volatile Inhalants appreciably increases the risk of harmful physical or mental health consequences to the user or to others to an extent that warrants attention and advice from health professionals, but has not resulted in specific identifiable harm and therefore does not meet the diagnostic requirements for Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants.
  • Boundary with Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants: If the harm to health is a result of a single episode of use rather than a pattern of substance use, whether episodic or continuous, a diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants should be assigned. Volatile Inhalant use is generally considered to be following a pattern if there has been at least episodic or intermittent use over a period of at least 12 months. If harm is caused by use of volatile inhalants but no information is available about the pattern or history of volatile inhalant use, a diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants may be assigned until such time as evidence for a pattern of use is ascertained.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant Dependence: In Volatile Inhalant Dependence, individuals use volatile inhalants persistently despite harm and adverse consequences. Harm caused by such use may be similar to that observed in Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants. However, Volatile Inhalant Dependence also includes additional features of impaired ability to control use and increasing priority given to the substance use over other activities. Physiological features (e.g., tolerance) may also be present. If all diagnostic requirements for Volatile Inhalant Dependence are met, Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants should not be assigned.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant Intoxication: Volatile Inhalant Intoxication is defined by volatile inhalant use that results in clinically significantly, transient volatile inhalant-specific symptoms. Recovery from Volatile Inhalant Intoxication is generally complete and absent of physical or mental sequelae. A pattern or repeated intoxication may or may not result in harm to a person’s physical or mental health or to the health of others. If there is continuing damage or harm as a result of repeated or continuous use of volatile inhalants, a diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants may be assigned. If relevant at the time of the clinical encounter (e.g., in an emergency room), Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants may be diagnosed with an associated diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal: Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal occurs upon cessation or reduction of a substance in the context of physiological dependence or when volatile inhalants have been taken for a prolonged period or in large amounts. Some features of volatile inhalant withdrawal may include physical or mental harm (e.g., insomnia, nausea, transient illusions, anxiety). If the symptoms are entirely explained by the Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal, an additional diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants is not warranted. However, if the symptoms substantially exceed the expected withdrawal syndrome in duration or type or severity and the diagnostic requirements for Volatile Inhalant Dependence are not met, Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants can be assigned as the primary diagnosis, with an associated diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorders: If a Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorder has occurred as a form of harm resulting from a pattern of volatile inhalant use, both Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants and the relevant Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorder should be diagnosed (e.g., Harmful Pattern of Volatile Inhalant Use with Volatile Inhalant-Induced Anxiety Disorder).
  • Boundary with other mental disorders and other medical conditions: Numerous mental disorders as well as subthreshold symptoms may co-occur with episodic or continuous patterns of volatile inhalant use. Similarly, continuous or episodic volatile inhalant use increases the risk for mental disorders as well as other medical conditions. Co-occurring mental disorders and comorbid medical conditions should be diagnosed separately, along with a diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants.
• 6C4B.2 Volatile inhalant dependence

  Volatile inhalant dependence is a disorder of regulation of volatile inhalant use arising from repeated or continuous use of volatile inhalants. The characteristic feature is a strong internal drive to use volatile inhalants, which is manifested by impaired ability to control use, increasing priority given to use over other activities and persistence of use despite harm or negative consequences. These experiences are often accompanied by a subjective sensation of urge or craving to use volatile inhalants. Physiological features of dependence may also be present, including tolerance to the effects of volatile inhalants, withdrawal symptoms following cessation or reduction in use of volatile inhalants, or repeated use of volatile inhalants or pharmacologically similar substances to prevent or alleviate withdrawal symptoms. The features of dependence are usually evident over a period of at least 12 months but the diagnosis may be made if volatile inhalant use is continuous (daily or almost daily) for at least 3 months. [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • A pattern of recurrent episodic or continuous use of volatile inhalants with evidence of impaired regulation of volatile inhalant use that is manifested by two or more of the following:
    • Impaired control over volatile inhalant use (i.e., onset, frequency, intensity, duration, termination, context);
    • Increasing precedence of volatile inhalant use over other aspects of life, including maintenance of health, and daily activities and responsibilities, such that volatile inhalant use continues or escalates despite the occurrence of harm or negative consequences (e.g., repeated relationship disruption, occupational or scholastic consequences, negative impact on health);
    • Physiological features indicative of neuroadaptation to the substance, including: 1) tolerance to the effects of volatile inhalants or a need to use increasing amounts of volatile inhalants to achieve the same effect; 2) withdrawal symptoms following cessation or reduction in use of volatile inhalants (see Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal), or 3) repeated use of volatile inhalants or pharmacologically similar substances to prevent or alleviate withdrawal symptoms.
  • The features of dependence are usually evident over a period of at least 12 months but the diagnosis may be made if use is continuous (daily or almost daily) for at least 3 months.

  Course Specifiers:

  A specifier is also used to describe the pattern of substance use in the context of Volatile Inhalant Dependence. Unlike alcohol, separate codes for continuous and episodic current use are not provided.

  6C4B.20 Volatile Inhalant Dependence, current use

  Current Volatile Inhalant Dependence with episodic or continuous use of volatile inhalants within the past month.

  6C4B.21 Volatile Inhalant Dependence, early full remission

  After a diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Dependence and often following a treatment episode or other intervention (including self-help intervention), the individual has been abstinent from volatile inhalants during a period lasting from between 1 and 12 months.

  6C4B.22 Volatile Inhalant Dependence, sustained partial remission

  After a diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Dependence, and often following a treatment episode or other intervention (including self-help intervention), there is a significant reduction in volatile inhalant use for more than 12 months, such that even though intermittent or continuous use has occurred during this period, the diagnostic requirements for dependence have not been met.

  6C4B.22 Volatile Inhalant Dependence, sustained full remission

  After a diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Dependence, and often following a treatment episode or other intervention (including self-intervention), the person has been abstinent from volatile inhalants for 12 months or longer.

  6C4B.2Z Volatile Inhalant Dependence, unspecified

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • A subjective sensation of urge or craving to use volatile inhalants often, but not always, accompanies the Essential Features of Volatile Inhalant Dependence.
  • When present as an aspect of Volatile Inhalant Dependence, withdrawal symptoms must be consistent with the known withdrawal state for volatile inhalants (see Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal).
  • Tolerance varies as a function of individual factors (e.g., substance use history, genetics) and should be differentiated from initial levels of response during intoxication, which also exhibit significant individual variability. Laboratory testing that reveals high levels of the substance in bodily fluids with no evidence of significant symptoms of intoxication may be suggestive of tolerance. Tolerance to the effects to substances as indicated by different psychophysiological responses can develop at varying rates (e.g., tolerance to respiratory depression caused by opioid intoxication may develop prior to tolerance to the sedating effects of the drug). With abstinence, tolerance effects diminish over time.
  • Individuals with certain comorbid medical conditions (e.g., chronic liver disease) typically have reduced tolerances to substances.
  • Physical or mental health consequences (beyond the Essential Features of Substance Dependence) typically occur in persons with Substance Dependence but are not required for the diagnosis. Similarly, functional impairment in one or several domains of life (e.g., work, domestic responsibilities, child-rearing) is commonly seen in persons with Substance Dependence, but is not required in order to assign the diagnosis.
  • Individuals with Substance Dependence have elevated rates of many other mental disorders, including Conduct-Dissocial Disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Impulse Control Disorders, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Social Anxiety Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Mood Disorders, Psychotic Disorders, and Personality Disorder with prominent dissocial features, as well as subthreshold symptoms. The specific pattern of co-occurrence depends on the specific substance involved, and reflects common risk factors and common causal pathways. These are distinguished from Substance-Induced Mental Disorders, in which the symptoms are a result of the direct physiological effects of the substance on the central nervous system.
  • A pattern of substance use that includes frequent or high dose administration occurs more often among certain subgroups (e.g., adolescents). In these cases, peer group dynamics may contribute to the maintenance of substance use. Regardless of the social contributions to the behaviour, a pattern of substance use that is consistent with subgroup norms should not be considered as presumptive evidence of Substance Dependence unless all diagnostic requirements for the disorder are met.

  Boundary with Normality (Threshold):

  • Frequent or even daily substance use of volatile inhalants does not automatically imply a diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Dependence. There must also be evidence of the Essential Features of Volatile Inhalant Dependence such as impaired control over use, increasing precedence of use over other life priorities, or physiological features.
  • The presence of physiological features such as tolerance and withdrawal is sometimes referred to as ‘physiological dependence’. These features may occur, for example, in response to prolonged therapeutic use of certain medications, such as in patients who are appropriately prescribed opioid analgesics for cancer pain. By themselves, however, these features are not sufficient for a diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Dependence, which also requires either impaired control over substance use or increasing precedence of volatile inhalant use over other activities.

  Course Features:

  • The course of Substance Dependence varies by substance, frequency, intensity, and duration of use. The central features of the dependence syndrome may be overshadowed by the harms to physical and mental health that patients with dependence often experience and for which they frequently seek treatment. Numerous medical conditions can occur due to substance use in the course of Substance Dependence. These conditions tend to be specific for each substance, although some are shared across substances. Negative consequences to physical health reflect either the known pharmacological effects of the relevant substance, the toxic effects of the substance on tissues and organs, or the route of administration (e.g., intravenous self-administration). Examples include alcoholic cirrhosis, infective endocarditis, and HIV/AIDS. Medical conditions caused by substance use should be diagnosed separately.

  Developmental Presentations:

  • Substance Dependence may develop more rapidly during adolescence than is usual during adulthood, especially when there are familial or other risk factors for Substance Dependence.
  • Tolerance to psychoactive substances may develop rapidly in adolescents and young adults, and decline equally rapidly when substance use ceases or is reduced in quantity or frequency.
  • Withdrawal symptoms are well recognized in neonates born to women with Substance Dependence who have used psychoactive substances during pregnancy. However, the presence of a withdrawal state in a neonate should not be the sole basis for a diagnosis of Substance Dependence in the mother.
  • Older adults often have reduced tolerance to substances.

  Sex- and/or Gender-Related Features:

  • Substance Dependence has similar features in men and women, although the intensity of substance use and duration of use necessary to result in dependence may differ by sex.
  • Women are less likely to be involved with the legal system in relation to substance use and therefore may be less likely to come to clinical attention than men. In clinical contexts, women may be reluctant to admit using substances due to prevailing social attitudes and proscriptions.
  • In some societies it may be culturally unacceptable for women to admit to substance use. Specific probing may be necessary to elicit a history of substance use and dependence.

  Boundaries with Other Disorders and with Normality:

  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant Intoxication: Episodic or continuous intoxication with volatile inhalants is a typical feature of Volatile Inhalant Dependence, but is not an Essential Feature. Conversely, even if frequent and severe, Volatile Inhalant Intoxication alone is not a basis for a diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Dependence. If all diagnostic requirements of both conditions are met for the same episode of care, Volatile Inhalant Dependence should be assigned as the primary diagnosis, with an associated diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication (e.g., Volatile Inhalant Dependence with Volatile Inhalant Intoxication) if appropriate to the specific clinical situation (e.g., in emergency settings).
  • Boundary with Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants: Volatile Inhalant Dependence is often associated with physical and mental health consequences, such as those seen in Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants. In the absence of the Essential Features of Volatile Inhalant Dependence, a diagnosis of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants can be given when there has been demonstrable harm to the individual’s physical or mental health or that of others. Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants and Volatile Inhalant Dependence should not be diagnosed together.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal: Many individuals with Volatile Inhalant Dependence develop Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal upon cessation or reduction in the amount of volatile inhalants consumed. In such cases, both Volatile Inhalant Dependence and Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal should be diagnosed. However, Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal can be diagnosed in the absence of a diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Dependence.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorders: The impact of repeated or continuous use of substances characteristic of Volatile Inhalant Dependence may include Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorders, in which case both Volatile Inhalant Dependence and the relevant Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorder should be diagnosed (e.g., Volatile Inhalant Dependence with Volatile Inhalant-Induced Delirium).
• 6C4B.3 Volatile inhalant intoxication

  Volatile inhalant intoxication is a clinically significant transient condition that develops during or shortly after the consumption of a volatile inhalant that is characterised by disturbances in consciousness, cognition, perception, affect, behaviour, or coordination. These disturbances are caused by the known pharmacological effects of volatile inhalants and their intensity is closely related to the amount of volatile inhalant consumed. They are time-limited and abate as the volatile inhalant is cleared from the body. Presenting features may include euphoria, impaired judgment, aggression, somnolence, stupor or coma, dizziness, tremor, lack of coordination, slurred speech, unsteady gait, lethargy and apathy, psychomotor retardation, and visual disturbances. Muscle weakness and diplopia may occur. Use of volatile inhalants may cause cardiac arrhythmia, cardiac arrest, and death. Inhalants containing lead (e.g. some forms of petrol/gasoline) may cause confusion, irritability, coma and seizures. [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • Transient and clinically significant disturbances in consciousness, cognition, perception, affect, behaviour, or coordination that develop during or shortly after the consumption or administration of volatile inhalants.
  • The symptoms must be compatible with the known pharmacological effects of volatile inhalants, and their intensity is closely related to the amount of volatile inhalants consumed.
  • Presenting features of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication may include euphoria, impaired judgment, aggression, somnolence, stupor or coma, dizziness, tremor, lack of coordination, slurred speech, unsteady gait, lethargy and apathy, psychomotor retardation, and visual disturbance. Muscle weakness and diplopia may occur.
  • The symptoms of intoxication are time-limited and abate as volatile inhalants are cleared from the body.
  • Symptoms are not better accounted for by another medical condition (See below) or another mental disorder, including another Disorder Due to Substance Use (e.g., Withdrawal from a different substance).

  Examples of Medical Conditions That May Present with Symptoms Similar to Substance Intoxication

  • Head injury (with or without cerebral contusion or intracranial haemorrhage or haematoma)
  • Meningitis and encephalitis
  • Diabetic ketoacidosis or hypoglycaemia
  • Hepatic or other metabolic encephalopathy
  • Wernicke’s encephalopathy
  • Electrolyte disturbance
  • Hypoxia or hypercapnia
  • Systemic infection

  Severity of Intoxication Specifier:

  Depending on the specific clinical situation and the information available, Substance Intoxication may be classified according to the level of severity as mild, moderate, or severe. The level of intoxication is usually related to the dose, route of administration, half-life, and duration of action of the substance. Severity of intoxication is also affected by individual variability (e.g., differences in body weight, substance metabolism, or tolerance). Susceptibility to substance intoxication may also be greater in individuals with comorbid medical conditions affecting drug pharmacokinetics (e.g., renal or hepatic insufficiency).

  For some substances, there are specific tests for detecting and determining the concentration of substances in bodily fluids (e.g., blood, urine), which can be important tools for clinical management. However, severity of intoxication should be determined on the basis of clinical assessment, as specified below, and not solely based on the presence and level of the substance in bodily fluids.

  The level of medical attention that may be required in response to substance intoxication varies according to the severity of intoxication and the substance involved, and varies from precautionary observation to urgent intervention to prevent death or permanent harm (e.g., administration of antagonist treatment; intubation).

  The severity of intoxication is classified using the following Extension (X) Codes in addition to the appropriate intoxication category. Extension codes are attached to the category to which they apply using an ampersand (&).

  XS5W Mild

  Mild substance intoxication is a state in which there are clinically recognizable disturbances in psychophysiological functions and responses (e.g., motor coordination, attention and judgement) that vary by substance, but there is little or no disturbance in the level of consciousness.

  The code for Volatile Inhalant Intoxication, mild is 6C4B.3&XS5W.

  XS0T Moderate

  Moderate substance intoxication is a state in which there are marked disturbances in psychophysiological functions and responses (e.g., motor coordination, attention and judgement) that vary by substance, with substantial impairment on tasks that require these functions. There is some disturbance in level of consciousness.

  The code for Volatile Inhalant Intoxication, moderate is 6C4B.3&XS0T.

  XS25 Severe

  Severe substance intoxication is a state in which there are obvious disturbances in psychophysiological functions and responses (e.g., motor coordination, attention and judgement) that vary by substance, with marked disturbance in level of consciousness. There is severe impairment to the extent that the person may not be capable of self-care or self-protection, and may be unable to communicate or cooperate with assessment and intervention.

  The code for Volatile Inhalant Intoxication, severe is 6C4B.3&XS25.

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • Intentional or unintentional exposure to a variety of volatile inhalant substances (e.g., glue, petrol, butane, paint) can cause the symptoms of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication.
  • Intentional Volatile Inhalant Intoxication typically involves ‘sniffing’ or ‘huffing’ the substances from closed containers, a practice which may lead to hypoxia and hypoxic brain damage and other long-lasting neurological sequelae.
  • Use of volatile inhalants may cause cardiac arrythmias, cardiac arrest, and death.
  • Inhalants containing lead (e.g., some forms of petrol/gasoline) may cause confusion, irritability, coma and seizures.
  • Use of volatile inhalants is more common among adolescents and young adults due to greater ease of access as compared to other psychoactive substances.
  • Psychoactive substances, whether of the same or a different pharmacological class, may interact such that they exacerbate or modify the features of intoxication. In cases of multiple psychoactive substance use in which more than one specific substance can be identified as a cause of the intoxication, it is recommended that the corresponding specific Substance Intoxication categories for each relevant substance be assigned (e.g., 6C40.3 Alcohol Intoxication and 6C4B.3 Volatile Inhalant Intoxication) rather than 6C4F.3 Intoxication Due to Multiple Specified Psychoactive Substances.
  • Volatile Inhalant Intoxication may occur in the presence of medical conditions that cause impairment of levels of consciousness, cognition, perception, affect, behaviour, or coordination, which should be diagnosed separately. Determination of the aetiology of the disturbances in psychophysiological functions or responses may require longitudinal assessment.

  Boundary with Normality (Threshold):

  • Measurement of the presence or concentration of a substance in breath, blood, saliva, urine or other body fluids may be an important tool in the clinical management of Substance Intoxication. However, detection of a psychoactive substance in body fluids does not constitute a presumptive diagnosis of Substance Intoxication.

  Course Features:

  • The onset of Substance Intoxication varies according to the route of administration, the absorption of the substance and other pharmacokinetic factors. Generally, inhalation (smoking) and intravenous injecting routes lead to more rapid onset of intoxication, though oral ingestion may also lead to intoxication within minutes, depending on the substance.
  • Substance Intoxication is a transient condition, with the duration of intoxication depending on multiple factors including: (1) the dose of the substance taken, (2) the half-life and duration of action of the particular substance, and (3) the formulation of the substance taken (e.g., for pharmaceutical preparations, whether a controlled-release drug has been taken). Intoxication may last from a few minutes up to several days following the episode of use. The intensity of intoxication lessens with time after reaching a peak of absorption, and the effects eventually disappear in the absence of further use of the substance.

  Culture-Related Features:

  • The degree and characteristics of intoxication displayed for a given amount of a psychoactive substance varies considerably with circumstances, with beliefs and expectations about the effects of the substance, and with the cultural acceptability of displaying these effects. These factors result in cultural differences in the extent and manifestations of intoxication.
  • There are also genetic differences in susceptibility to intoxication with specific psychoactive substances associated with certain ethnic groups. Cultural and ethnically linked genetic factors have been better documented for alcohol than for other substances.

  Developmental Presentations:

  • Naïve users including adolescents can show features of intoxication at lower levels of use, reflecting lower physical and learned tolerance.
  • Older adults may have a lower tolerance than younger people to the effects of substances.

  Sex- and/or Gender-Related Features:

  • The amount of substance and duration of use necessary to cause intoxication differs by sex, reflecting differences in body weight and composition.
  • Behaviour while intoxicated may vary by gender, reflecting not only physiological differences, but also cultural differences and role expectations.

  Boundaries with Other Disorders and Conditions (Differential Diagnosis):

  • Boundary with Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants and Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants: In Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants and Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants, consumption or administration of volatile inhalants results in damage to the person’s physical or mental health (including a Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorder) or in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others. Recovery from Volatile Inhalant Intoxication is generally complete. Complications due to such effects of intoxication such as injury, the effects of prolonged hyperactivity or inactivity, or other tissue damage should be diagnosed as Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants or Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants, as appropriate. If relevant at the time of the clinical encounter (e.g., in emergency settings), Volatile Inhalant Intoxication can be given as an associated diagnosis, with Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants or Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants as the primary diagnosis.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant Dependence: Episodic or continuous intoxication with volatile inhalants is a typical feature of Volatile Inhalant Dependence. If all diagnostic requirements of both conditions are met for the same episode of care, Volatile Inhalant Dependence should be assigned as the primary diagnosis, with an associated diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal: Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal occurs upon cessation or reduction of volatile inhalants in the context of physiological dependence or when volatile inhalants have been taken for a prolonged period or in large amounts. In contrast, the onset of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication occurs immediately or shortly after the consumption of volatile inhalants. Moreover the intoxication and withdrawal syndromes for volatile inhalants are typically quite distinct.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant-Induced Delirium: Delirium is characterized by disturbances in attention, orientation, and awareness that develop within a short period of time with symptoms that are transient and may fluctuate depending on the underlying aetiology. Delirium often includes disturbance of behaviour and emotion, and may include impairment in multiple cognitive domains. Disturbance of the sleep-wake cycle may also be present. Delirium can be caused by intoxication or withdrawal from substances. When symptoms of Delirium are attributable to Volatile Inhalant Intoxication, an associated diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant-Induced Delirium should be assigned in addition to the diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication.
  • Boundary with other Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorders: Mental or behavioural symptoms that arise during Volatile Inhalant Intoxication should only be used as a basis for diagnosing a Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorder if the intensity or duration of the symptoms is substantially in excess of those that are characteristic of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication and the symptoms are sufficiently severe to warrant specific clinical attention.
  • Boundary with other medical conditions: A variety of medical conditions may produce symptoms that are similar to those of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication. Some of these medical conditions are life-threatening requiring immediate intervention. Evidence of volatile inhalant use (e.g., positive laboratory results) does not rule out the possibility of a comorbid medical condition. These alternative diagnoses must be considered in assessing Volatile Inhalant Intoxication. Certain medical conditions may also augment or prolong the duration of intoxication. Symptoms of intoxication that persist after they can no longer be reasonably attributed to the pharmacological effects of volatile inhalants may suggest the presence of another medical condition. If it is determined that Volatile Inhalant Intoxication is comorbid with a medical condition, both diagnoses should be assigned.
  • Boundary with overdose: When consumption or administration of psychoactive substances results in symptoms of overdose (e.g., coma; life-threatening cardiac or respiratory suppression), it is typically more appropriate to apply a diagnosis from the grouping of Harmful Effects of Substances in the chapter on Injury, Poisoning or Certain Other Consequences of External Causes rather than Substance Intoxication.
• 6C4B.4 Volatile inhalant withdrawal

  Volatile inhalant withdrawal is a clinically significant cluster of symptoms, behaviours and/or physiological features, varying in degree of severity and duration, that occurs upon cessation or reduction of use of volatile inhalants in individuals who have developed Volatile inhalant dependence or have used volatile inhalants for a prolonged period or in large amounts. Presenting features of Volatile inhalant withdrawal may include insomnia, anxiety, irritability, dysphoric mood, shakiness, perspiration, nausea, and transient illusions. [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • The presence of a clinically significant cluster of symptoms, behaviours, and/or physiological features that occurs upon cessation or reduction in the use of volatile inhalants in individuals who have developed dependence on volatile inhalants or have used volatile inhalants for a prolonged period or in large amounts.
  • Presenting features of Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal may include insomnia, anxiety, irritability, depressed or dysphoric mood, shakiness, perspiration, nausea, and transient illusions.
  • The severity and duration of Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal is related to the type of inhalant used and to the amount, frequency and duration of use of the specific inhalant.
  • The symptoms are not better accounted for by another medical condition or another mental disorder.

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal may be accompanied by persisting features of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication or its medical complications such as encephalopathy, especially when the inhalant used is lead-containing petrol/gasoline.
  • Characteristic features of Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal are opposite to the acute pharmacological effects of volatile inhalants.
  • Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal symptoms become more severe with repeated episodes of withdrawal (termed ‘kindling’), with aging, or in the presence of comorbid medical conditions.

  Boundary with Normality (Threshold):

  • Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal should only be diagnosed when symptoms are consistent with those recognized as occurring upon cessation or reduction in use of volatile inhalants. Recent cessation or reduction of use and the presence of various non-specific transient symptoms is not sufficient to make the diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal.
  • Withdrawal symptoms should be differentiated from the transient physiological aftereffects of intoxication (‘hangover effect’).
  • Some individuals who have previously had Volatile Inhalant Dependence may experience symptoms similar to those of Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal months after the last use of the substance, particularly when the individual encounters stimuli (e.g., drug paraphernalia) and contexts (e.g., location where use was frequent) previously associated with past volatile inhalant use. These symptoms are more transient than those observed during Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal and occur exclusively when in contact with associated stimuli and contexts. A diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal should not be assigned under these circumstances.

  Course Features:

  • Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal is time-limited. Factors that influence the features and time course of Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal include: (1) the severity of Volatile Inhalant Dependence, if present, (2) the dose, frequency of use, and duration of volatile inhalant use prior to cessation or reduction of that use, (3) the half-life and duration of action of volatile inhalants, and (4) the presence of comorbid medical conditions (e.g., metabolic disturbances).

  Culture-Related Features:

  • Symptoms of withdrawal depend largely on the psychotropic characteristics of volatile inhalants. However, specific cultures may emphasize certain symptoms of withdrawal over others, making it more difficult to conduct a differential diagnosis. In addition, vernacular terms for withdrawal vary greatly.

  Boundaries with Other Disorders and Conditions (Differential Diagnosis):

  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant Dependence: Many individuals with Volatile Inhalant Dependence develop Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal upon cessation or reduction in the amount of the substance. In such cases, both Volatile Inhalant Dependence and Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal should be diagnosed. However, Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal can be diagnosed in the absence of a diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Dependence.
  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant Intoxication: The onset of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication occurs immediately or shortly after the consumption of volatile inhalants. In contrast, Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal occurs upon cessation or reduction in the amount of volatile inhalants in the context of Volatile Inhalant Dependence or when volatile inhalants have been taken for a prolonged period or in large amounts. For volatile inhalants, the intoxication and withdrawal syndromes are typically distinct.
  • Boundary with other Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorders: Mental or behavioural symptoms that arise during Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal should only be used as a basis for diagnosing a Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorder if the intensity or duration of the symptoms is substantially in excess of those that are characteristic of the Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal and the symptoms are sufficiently severe to warrant specific clinical attention. In such cases, if the withdrawal syndrome is ongoing, diagnoses of both Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal and a Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorder may be assigned.
  • Boundary with other mental disorders: Various symptoms associated with Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal overlap with those that are characteristic of other mental disorders (e.g., depressive and anxiety symptoms). Symptoms of Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal occur in specific temporal relationship to the cessation of use of volatile inhalants and diminish with the passage of time. Evidence supporting a mental disorder diagnosis would include the symptoms preceding the onset of volatile inhalant use, the symptoms persisting for a substantial period of time after cessation of volatile inhalants or withdrawal (e.g., 1 month or more, depending on the substance), or other evidence of a pre-existing mental disorder (e.g., a history of prior episodes not associated with volatile inhalant use).
  • Boundary with other medical conditions: It may be difficult to distinguish between various symptoms associated with Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal (e.g., nausea, shakiness, perspiration, transient illusions) and those that are characteristic of other medical conditions. Symptoms of Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal occur in specific temporal relationship to the cessation of use of volatile inhalants and diminish with the passage of time.
• 6C4B.5 Volatile inhalant-induced delirium

  Volatile inhalant-induced delirium is characterised by an acute state of disturbed attention and awareness with specific features of delirium that develops during or soon after substance intoxication or withdrawal or during the use of volatile inhalants. The amount and duration of volatile inhalant use must be capable of producing delirium. The symptoms are not better explained by a primary mental disorder, by use of or withdrawal from a different substance, or by another health condition that is not classified under Mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders. [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • All diagnostic requirements for 6D70 Delirium are met.
  • There is evidence from history, physical examination, or laboratory findings that the neurocognitive disturbance is caused by the direct physiological consequences of volatile inhalant use. This judgment depends on establishing that the course of the Delirium (e.g., onset, trajectory of symptoms, eventual remission with elimination of the substance from the body) is consistent with causation by volatile inhalant use.
  • The duration or severity of the symptoms is substantially in excess of the characteristic syndrome of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication or Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal.
  • The diagnostic requirements for 6D70.2 Delirium Due to Multiple Etiological Factors are not met.

  Note: See 6D70 Delirium for other CDDR sections, including Additional Clinical Features, Boundary with Normality (Threshold), Course Features, Developmental Presentations, Culture-Related Features, and Boundaries with Other Disorders and Conditions (Differential Diagnosis).

• 6C4B.6 Volatile inhalant-induced psychotic disorder

  Volatile inhalant-induced psychotic disorder is characterised by psychotic symptoms (e.g. delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, grossly disorganized behaviour) that develop during or soon after intoxication with or withdrawal from volatile inhalants. The intensity or duration of the symptoms is substantially in excess of psychotic-like disturbances of perception, cognition, or behaviour that are characteristic of Volatile inhalant intoxication or Volatile inhalant withdrawal. The amount and duration of volatile inhalant use must be capable of producing psychotic symptoms. The symptoms are not better explained by a primary mental disorder (e.g. Schizophrenia, a Mood disorder with psychotic symptoms), as might be the case if the psychotic symptoms preceded the onset of the volatile inhalant use, if the symptoms persist for a substantial period of time after cessation of the volatile inhalant use or withdrawal, or if there is other evidence of a pre-existing primary mental disorder with psychotic symptoms (e.g. a history of prior episodes not associated with volatile inhalant use). [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • The presentation is characterized by psychotic symptoms (e.g., delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized thinking or behaviour) that develop during or soon after intoxication with or withdrawal from volatile inhalants.
  • The intensity or duration of the psychotic symptoms is substantially in excess of psychotic-like disturbances of perception, cognition, or behaviour that are characteristic of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication or Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal.
  • The symptoms are not better accounted for by another mental disorder such as Schizophrenia or a Mood Disorder with psychotic symptoms. Evidence supporting a diagnosis of another mental disorder would include psychotic symptoms preceding the onset of volatile inhalant use, the symptoms persisting for a substantial period of time after cessation of volatile inhalant use or withdrawal (e.g., 1 month or more), or other evidence of a pre-existing mental disorder with psychotic symptoms (e.g., a history of prior episodes not associated with volatile inhalant use).
  • The symptoms are not a manifestation of another medical condition.
  • The symptoms cause significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational or other important areas of functioning.

  When making a diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder, an additional diagnosis indicating the related pattern of volatile inhalant use should also be assigned. These include Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants, Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants, and Volatile Inhalant Dependence. A diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication or Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal may also be assigned if applicable.

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder may present varying patterns of symptoms that vary according to the characteristics of the user (e.g., genetics, metabolism, personality factors). Volatile Inhalant use in higher amounts or over longer periods of time is more likely to be associated with the development of a Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder.
  • Symptoms of Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder usually resolve or improve after sustained cessation of volatile inhalant use.
  • The duration of Substance Withdrawal for some substances can be protracted. For substances with more protracted withdrawal periods, the onset of symptoms of Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder can occur up to several weeks after the cessation of substance use. Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder symptoms related to substances with more protracted withdrawal periods may also last for correspondingly longer periods of time.
  • In cases in which multiple psychoactive substance are used, it is often challenging to distinguish which substance is the cause of the Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder. When the specific etiological substance cannot be determined, a diagnosis of Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder Due to Multiple Specified Psychoactive Substances including Medications may assigned. In cases of multiple psychoactive substance use in which more than one specific substance can be identified as a cause of the Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder, the corresponding specific Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder diagnoses should be given instead.

  Boundary with Normality (Threshold):

  • Symptoms of Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorders should be differentiated from transient physiological aftereffects of intoxication (‘hangover effect’). The duration or severity of the symptoms in Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorders must be in excess of ‘hangover effects’ of Volatile Inhalants and result in significant distress or impairment of functioning.

  Boundaries with Other Disorders and Conditions (Differential Diagnosis):

  • Boundary with Volatile Inhalant Intoxication and Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal: Mental or behavioural symptoms that occur during Volatile Inhalant Intoxication or Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal should only be used as a basis for diagnosing a Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder if the intensity or duration of the symptoms is substantially in excess of those that are characteristic of Volatile Inhalant Intoxication or Volatile Inhalant Withdrawal and the symptoms are sufficiently severe to warrant specific clinical attention.
  • Boundary with Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants, Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants, or Volatile Inhalant Dependence: The impact of repeated or continuous use of volatile inhalants characteristic of Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants and Volatile Inhalant Dependence may include Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder. Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorders can also be associated with a single episode of volatile inhalant use. In such cases, a Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder should be diagnosed together with a primary diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants, Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants, or Volatile Inhalant Dependence.
  • Boundary with mental disorders not induced by volatile inhalants: Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorders are differentiated from mental disorders with similar features that are not induced by volatile inhalants on the basis of their onset, course and clinical features. A diagnosis of Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder requires evidence from history, physical or mental examination, or laboratory findings of recent volatile inhalant use, intoxication or withdrawal. Most Volatile Inhalant-Induced Mental Disorders resolve or improve within several weeks of cessation of volatile inhalant use. Mental disorders not induced by volatile inhalants may precede the onset of volatile inhalant use or may continue to be symptomatic during periods of sustained abstinence. The co-occurrence of volatile inhalant use or withdrawal and onset of symptoms of mental disorders should not be taken as evidence for a presumptive diagnosis of a Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder. Some people use substances to suppress symptoms of mental disorders (e.g., Schizophrenia and Other Primary Psychotic Disorders, Mood Disorders, Anxiety and Fear-Related Disorders, Personality Disorders) and full symptomatic presentations only emerge upon cessation or reduction in substance use. Furthermore, volatile inhalant use can exacerbate symptoms or precipitate an episode of a pre-existing mental disorder. Finally, volatile inhalant use may be associated with but not aetiologic for new onset of symptoms of a mental disorder. Although a diagnosis of a Volatile Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder should not be assigned under these circumstances, an additional diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Volatile Inhalants, Harmful Pattern of Use of Volatile Inhalants, or Volatile Inhalant Dependence may still be appropriate.
• 6C4B.7 Certain specified volatile inhalants-induced mental or behavioural disorders

Coded elsewhere

• Amnestic disorder due to use of volatile inhalants (6D72.13)

References

1. World Health Organization. International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision, for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics (ICD-11 MMS), 2026-01 release. World Health Organization; 2026.
2. World Health Organization. Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Requirements for ICD-11 Mental, Behavioural or Neurodevelopmental Disorders (CDDR). World Health Organization; 2024.

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