Disorders due to use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics

Description

Disorders due to use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics are characterised by the pattern and consequences of use of these substances. Sedatives, hypnotics, and anxiolytics are typically prescribed for the short-term treatment of anxiety or insomnia and are also employed to provide sedation for medical procedures. They include the benzodiazepines and the non-benzodiazepine positive allosteric modulators of GABA receptors (i.e., ‘Z-drugs’) as well as many other compounds. Sedatives, hypnotics, and anxiolytics include barbiturates, which are available much less commonly now than in previous decades. Sedatives, hypnotics, and anxiolytics have dependence-inducing properties that are related to the dose and duration of their use. They may cause intoxication, dependence and withdrawal. Several other mental disorders induced by sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics are recognized. [1]

Diagnostic requirements

WHO clinical descriptions and diagnostic requirements [1,2].

Subcategories

• 6C44.0 Episode of harmful use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics

  An episode of use of a sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic that has caused damage to a person’s physical or mental health or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others. Harm to health of the individual occurs due to one or more of the following: (1) behaviour related to intoxication; (2) direct or secondary toxic effects on body organs and systems; or (3) a harmful route of administration. Harm to health of others includes any form of physical harm, including trauma, or mental disorder that is directly attributable to behaviour due to sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic intoxication on the part of the person to whom the diagnosis of single episode of harmful use applies. This diagnosis should not be made if the harm is attributed to a known pattern of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use. [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • An episode of use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics that has caused clinically significant damage to a person’s physical health or mental health (e.g., Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Mood Disorder), or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others.
  • Harm to health of the individual occurs due to one or more of the following: (1) behaviour related to intoxication; (2) direct or secondary toxic effects on body organs and systems; or (3) a harmful route of administration.
  • Harm to health of others includes any form of physical harm, including trauma, or mental disorder that is directly attributable to behaviour due to Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication on the part of the person to whom the diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics applies.
  • Harm to health is not better accounted for by another medical condition or another mental disorder, including another Disorder Due to Substance Use (e.g., Substance Withdrawal).

  Note: Harm to the health of the person to whom the diagnosis applies includes injuries caused by behaviour related to intoxication (e.g., impulsive aggressive behaviour, psychomotor impairment leading to injury), acute health problems resulting from substance use (e.g., overdose, acute gastritis, the effects of hypoxia or prolonged hyperactivity or inactivity), and exacerbation or decompensation of pre-existing chronic health problems (e.g., hypertension, liver disease, or peptic ulceration). Harm may also result from a harmful route of administration (e.g., injecting drug use causing blood-borne virus infections, cocaine use causing a perforated nasal septum). The relevant diagnostic codes from other chapters of the ICD-11, including the chapter on Injury, Poisoning or Certain Other Consequences of External Causes, should be used to describe the specific health consequences of the harmful substance use.

  Harm to the health of others includes any form of physical harm, including trauma (e.g., impaired driving causing a motor vehicle accident, assaultive behaviour leading to bodily harm to another person) or mental disorder (e.g., Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder arising from an assault by the intoxicated individual) that is directly attributable to behaviour due to substance intoxication on the part of the person to whom the diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Psychoactive Substance Use applies.

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • There must be explicit evidence of harm to the individual’s physical or mental health, or of substance-related behaviour due to intoxication that has led to harm to the physical or mental health of others. There must also be a clear causal relationship between the harm to health and the episode of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use in question.
  • The likelihood of harm to self or others due behaviour related to intoxication varies substantially by substance. For example, such behaviour is unlikely to arise from caffeine or nicotine intoxication.
  • Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic use commonly occurs in the context of other mental disorders. An additional diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics can be made if the index episode of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use has resulted in clinically significant harm to the individual’s physical health or has exacerbated or triggered an episode of a pre-existing mental disorder (e.g., a Manic or Depressive Episode or a psychotic episode).
  • A diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics often signals an opportunity for intervention, typically a low intensity intervention that can be implemented in a wide range of settings that is specifically aimed at reducing the likelihood of additional harmful episodes or of progression to Harmful Pattern of Use or Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence.
  • As more information becomes available indicating that the episode is part of a continuous or recurrent pattern of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use, or if additional harmful episodes occur, a diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics should be changed to Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics or Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence, as appropriate.

  Boundary with Normality (Threshold):

  • The diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics requires clinically significant harm to the individual’s physical or mental health or that of others. Examples of impact on physical or mental health that would not be considered clinically significant include mild hangover, brief episodes of vomiting, or transient depressed mood.
  • A range of social problems may be associated with an episode of substance use that are not sufficiently severe to constitute clinically significant harm to physical or mental health (e.g., missed appointments, arguments with loved ones). Such problems are not a sufficient basis for a diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics.

  Boundaries with Other Disorders and Conditions (Differential Diagnosis):

  • Boundary with Hazardous Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics: Hazardous Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics is classified in the chapter on ‘Factors Influencing Health Status or Contact with Health Services’ in the ICD-11 and not in the chapter on Mental, Behavioural, and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Hazardous Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics appreciably increases the risk of harmful physical or mental health consequences to the user or to others to an extent that warrants attention and advice from health professionals, but has not resulted in specific identifiable harm and therefore does not meet the diagnostic requirements for Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics.
  • Boundary with Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics: If the harm to health is a result of a known episodic or continuous pattern of substance use and all other diagnostic requirements are met, a diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics should be assigned. Substance use is generally considered to be following a pattern if there has been at least episodic or intermittent use over a period of at least 12 months. If harm is caused by use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics but no information is available about the pattern or history of substance use, a diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics may be assigned until such time as evidence for a pattern of use is ascertained.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence: In Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence, individuals use sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics persistently despite harm and adverse consequences. Harm caused by such use may be similar to that observed in Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics. However, Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence also includes additional features of impaired ability to control use and increasing priority given to the substance use over other activities. Physiological features (e.g., tolerance) may also be present. If all diagnostic requirements for Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence are met, Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics should not be assigned.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication: Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication is defined by sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use that results in clinically significant transient sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic-specific symptoms. Recovery from Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication is generally complete and without physical or mental sequelae. If there is continuing damage or harm (e.g., the effects of hypoxia, the effects of prolonged hyperactivity or inactivity, tissue damage) due to an episode of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication, a diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics may be assigned. If relevant at the time of the clinical encounter (e.g., in emergency settings), Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics may be diagnosed with an associated diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorders: Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorders can be associated with a single episode of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use. If a Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorder has occurred as a form of harm resulting from a single episode of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use, both Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics and the relevant Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorder should be diagnosed (e.g., Episode of Harmful Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Use with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorder).
  • Boundary with overdose: When ingestion of psychoactive substances results in symptoms of overdose (e.g., coma; life-threatening cardiac or respiratory suppression), a diagnosis from the grouping of Harmful Effects of Substances in the chapter on Injury, Poisoning or Certain Other Consequences of External Causes should also be assigned.
• 6C44.1 Harmful pattern of use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics

  A pattern of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use that has caused clinically significant harm to a person’s physical or mental health or in which behaviour induced by sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics has caused clinically significant harm to the health of other people. The pattern of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use is evident over a period of at least 12 months if use is episodic and at least one month if use is continuous (i.e., daily or almost daily). Harm may be caused by the intoxicating effects of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics, the direct or secondary toxic effects on body organs and systems, or a harmful route of administration. [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • A pattern of continuous, recurrent, or sporadic use of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics that has caused clinically significant damage to a person’s physical health or mental health (e.g., Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics-Induced Mood Disorder), or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others.
  • Harm to health of the individual occurs due to one or more of the following: (1) behaviour related to intoxication; (2) direct or secondary toxic effects on body organs and systems; or (3) a harmful route of administration.
  • Harm to health of others includes any form of physical harm, including trauma, or mental disorder that is directly attributable to behaviour related to substance intoxication on the part of the person to whom the diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics applies.
  • The pattern of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use is evident over a period of at least 12 months if sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use is episodic or at least 1 month if use is continuous.
  • Harm to health is not better accounted for by another medical condition or another mental disorder, including another Disorder Due to Substance Use (e.g., Substance Withdrawal).

  Note: Harm to the health of the person to whom the diagnosis applies includes injuries caused by behaviour related to intoxication (e.g., impulsive aggressive behaviour, psychomotor impairment leading to injury; acute health problems resulting from substance use (e.g., overdose, acute gastritis, the effects of hypoxia or prolonged hyperactivity or inactivity), and exacerbation or decompensation of pre-existing chronic health problems (e.g., hypertension, liver disease, or peptic ulceration). Harm may also result from a harmful route of administration (e.g., injecting drug use causing blood-borne virus infections, cocaine use causing a perforated nasal septum). The relevant diagnostic codes from other chapters of the ICD-11, including the chapter on Injury, Poisoning or Certain Other Consequences of External Causes, should be used to describe the specific health consequences of the harmful substance use.

  Harm to the health of others includes any form of physical harm, including trauma (e.g., impaired driving causing a motor vehicle accident, assaultive behaviour leading to bodily harm to another person) or mental disorder (e.g., Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder arising from an assault by the intoxicated individual) that is directly attributable to behaviour due to substance intoxication on the part of the person to whom the diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Psychoactive Substance Use applies.

  Course Specifiers:

  A specifier is used to further describe the harmful pattern of substance use, using a fifth-digit code. The fourth-digit code indicates the substance class (i.e., 4 for sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics).

  6C44.10 Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics, episodic

  This category is assigned when all the diagnostic requirements for Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics are met and there is evidence of a pattern of recurrent episodic or intermittent use of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics over a period of at least 12 months that has caused clinically significant harm to a person’s physical or mental health or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others.

  6C44.11 Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics, continuous

  This category is assigned when all the diagnostic requirements for Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics are met and there is evidence of a pattern of continuous sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use (daily or almost daily) over a period of at least 1 month that has caused clinically significant harm to a person’s physical or mental health or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others.

  6C44.1Z Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics, unspecified

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • There must be explicit evidence of harm to the individual’s physical or mental health, or of related behaviour due to Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Intoxication that has led to harm to the physical or mental health of others. There must also be a clear causal relationship between the harm to health and the episodic or continuous use of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics.
  • The likelihood of harm to self or others due behaviour related to intoxication varies substantially by substance. For example, such behaviour is unlikely to arise from caffeine or nicotine intoxication.
  • As more information becomes available about symptoms and behaviours related to the pattern of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use as well as physiological features indicative of neuroadaptation to the substance, the diagnosis may be changed to Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence if diagnostic requirements are met.

  Boundary with Normality (Threshold):

  • The diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics requires clinically significant harm to the individual’s physical or mental health or that of others. Examples of impact on physical or mental health that would not be considered clinically significant include mild hangovers, brief episodes of vomiting, or transient depressed mood.
  • A pattern of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use may cause a range of problems in functioning (e.g., missed appointments, arguments with loved ones) that are not sufficiently severe to constitute clinically significant harm to physical or mental health. Such problems are not a sufficient basis for a diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics.

  Developmental Presentations:

  • Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics is often a characteristic of late adolescence and young adulthood, and injuries and the consequences of aggressive behaviour are particularly common in this age group.
  • Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics in older adults may cause injuries and fractures due to the combination of lowered tolerance, psychomotor impairment induced by a substance, and disorders associated with ageing such as osteoporosis and Dementia.

  Sex- and/or Gender-Related Features:

  • The prevalence of Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics is higher in males than females, but the gender differential is smaller in countries where women play a greater role in the workforce. Gender differences in injuries and other forms of harm due to substance use are recognized.

  Boundaries with Other Disorders and Conditions (Differential Diagnosis):

  • Boundary with Hazardous Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics: Hazardous Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics is classified in the chapter on ‘Factors Influencing Health Status or Contact with Health Services’ in the ICD-11 and not in the chapter on Mental, Behavioural, and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Hazardous Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics appreciably increases the risk of harmful physical or mental health consequences to the user or to others to an extent that warrants attention and advice from health professionals, but has not resulted in specific identifiable harm and therefore does not meet the diagnostic requirements for Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics.
  • Boundary with Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics: If the harm to health is a result of a single episode of use rather than a pattern of substance use, whether episodic or continuous, a diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics should be assigned. Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic use is generally considered to be following a pattern if there has been at least episodic or intermittent use over a period of at least 12 months. If harm is caused by use of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics but no information is available about the pattern or history of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use, a diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics may be assigned until such time as evidence for a pattern of use is ascertained.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence: In Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence, individuals use sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics persistently despite harm and adverse consequences. Harm caused by such use may be similar to that observed in Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics. However, Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence also includes additional features of impaired ability to control use and increasing priority given to the substance use over other activities. Physiological features (e.g., tolerance) may also be present. If all diagnostic requirements for Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence are met, Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics should not be assigned.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Intoxication: Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Intoxication is defined by sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use that results in clinically significantly, transient sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic-specific symptoms. Recovery from Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Intoxication is generally complete and absent of physical or mental sequelae. A pattern or repeated intoxication may or may not result in harm to a person’s physical or mental health or to the health of others. If there is continuing damage or harm as a result of repeated or continuous use of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics, a diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics may be assigned. If relevant at the time of the clinical encounter (e.g., in an emergency room), Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics may be diagnosed with an associated diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Intoxication.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Withdrawal: Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Withdrawal occurs upon cessation or reduction of a substance in the context of physiological dependence or when sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics have been taken for a prolonged period or in large amounts. Some features of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic withdrawal may include physical or mental harm (e.g., seizures, insomnia, hallucinations, anxiety). If the symptoms are entirely explained by the Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Withdrawal, an additional diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics is not warranted. However, if the symptoms substantially exceed the expected withdrawal syndrome in duration or type or severity and the diagnostic requirements for Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence are not met, Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics can be assigned as the primary diagnosis, with an associated diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Withdrawal.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorders: If a Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorder has occurred as a form of harm resulting from a pattern of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use, both Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics and the relevant Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorder should be diagnosed (e.g., Harmful Pattern of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Use with Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic-Induced Anxiety Disorder).
  • Boundary with other mental disorders and other medical conditions: Numerous mental disorders as well as subthreshold symptoms may co-occur with episodic or continuous patterns of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use. Similarly, continuous or episodic sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use increases the risk for mental disorders as well as other medical conditions. Co-occurring mental disorders and comorbid medical conditions should be diagnosed separately, along with a diagnosis of Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics.
• 6C44.2 Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic dependence

  Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic dependence is a disorder of regulation of sedative use arising from repeated or continuous use of these substances. The characteristic feature is a strong internal drive to use sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics, which is manifested by impaired ability to control use, increasing priority given to use over other activities and persistence of use despite harm or negative consequences. These experiences are often accompanied by a subjective sensation of urge or craving to use these substances. Physiological features of dependence may also be present, including tolerance to the effects of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics, withdrawal symptoms following cessation or reduction in use, or repeated use of sedatives or pharmacologically similar substances to prevent or alleviate withdrawal symptoms. The features of dependence are usually evident over a period of at least 12 months but the diagnosis may be made if sedative use is continuous (daily or almost daily) for at least 3 months. [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • A pattern of recurrent episodic or continuous use of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics with evidence of impaired regulation of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use that is manifested by two or more of the following:
    • Impaired control over sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use (i.e., onset, frequency, intensity, duration, termination, context);
    • Increasing precedence of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use over other aspects of life, including maintenance of health, and daily activities and responsibilities, such that sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use continues or escalates despite the occurrence of harm or negative consequences (e.g., repeated relationship disruption, occupational or scholastic consequences, negative impact on health);
    • Physiological features indicative of neuroadaptation to the substance, including: 1) tolerance to the effects of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics or a need to use increasing amounts of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics to achieve the same effect; 2) withdrawal symptoms following cessation or reduction in use of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics (see Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Withdrawal), or 3) repeated use of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics or pharmacologically similar substances to prevent or alleviate withdrawal symptoms.
  • The features of dependence are usually evident over a period of at least 12 months but the diagnosis may be made if use is continuous (daily or almost daily) for at least 3 months.

  Course Specifiers:

  A specifier is also used to describe the pattern of substance use in the context of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence. Unlike alcohol, separate codes for continuous and episodic current use are not provided.

  6C44.20 Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence, current use

  Current Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence with episodic or continuous use of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics within the past month.

  6C44.21 Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence, early full remission

  After a diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence and often following a treatment episode or other intervention (including self-help intervention), the individual has been abstinent from sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics during a period lasting from between 1 and 12 months.

  6C44.22 Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence, sustained partial remission

  After a diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence, and often following a treatment episode or other intervention (including self-help intervention), there is a significant reduction in sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use for more than 12 months, such that even though intermittent or continuous use has occurred during this period, the diagnostic requirements for dependence have not been met.

  6C44.22 Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence, sustained full remission

  After a diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence, and often following a treatment episode or other intervention (including self-intervention), the person has been abstinent from sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics for 12 months or longer.

  6C44.2Z Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence, unspecified

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • A subjective sensation of urge or craving to use sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics often, but not always, accompanies the Essential Features of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence.
  • When present as an aspect of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence, withdrawal symptoms must be consistent with the known withdrawal state for sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics (see Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Withdrawal).
  • Tolerance varies as a function of individual factors (e.g., substance use history, genetics) and should be differentiated from initial levels of response during intoxication, which also exhibit significant individual variability. Laboratory testing that reveals high levels of the substance in bodily fluids with no evidence of significant symptoms of intoxication may be suggestive of tolerance. Tolerance to the effects to substances as indicated by different psychophysiological responses can develop at varying rates (e.g., tolerance to respiratory depression caused by opioid intoxication may develop prior to tolerance to the sedating effects of the drug). With abstinence, tolerance effects diminish over time.
  • Individuals with certain comorbid medical conditions (e.g., chronic liver disease) typically have reduced tolerances to substances.
  • Physical or mental health consequences (beyond the Essential Features of Substance Dependence) typically occur in persons with Substance Dependence but are not required for the diagnosis. Similarly, functional impairment in one or several domains of life (e.g., work, domestic responsibilities, child-rearing) is commonly seen in persons with Substance Dependence, but is not required in order to assign the diagnosis.
  • Individuals with Substance Dependence have elevated rates of many other mental disorders, including Conduct-Dissocial Disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Impulse Control Disorders, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Social Anxiety Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Mood Disorders, Psychotic Disorders, and Personality Disorder with prominent dissocial features, as well as subthreshold symptoms. The specific pattern of co-occurrence depends on the specific substance involved, and reflects common risk factors and common causal pathways. These are distinguished from Substance-Induced Mental Disorders, in which the symptoms are a result of the direct physiological effects of the substance on the central nervous system.
  • A pattern of substance use that includes frequent or high dose administration occurs more often among certain subgroups (e.g., adolescents). In these cases, peer group dynamics may contribute to the maintenance of substance use. Regardless of the social contributions to the behaviour, a pattern of substance use that is consistent with subgroup norms should not be considered as presumptive evidence of Substance Dependence unless all diagnostic requirements for the disorder are met.

  Boundary with Normality (Threshold):

  • Frequent or even daily substance use of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics does not automatically imply a diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence. There must also be evidence of the Essential Features of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence such as impaired control over use, increasing precedence of use over other life priorities, or physiological features.
  • The presence of physiological features such as tolerance and withdrawal is sometimes referred to as ‘physiological dependence’. These features may occur, for example, in response to prolonged therapeutic use of certain medications, such as in patients who are appropriately prescribed opioid analgesics for cancer pain. By themselves, however, these features are not sufficient for a diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence, which also requires either impaired control over substance use or increasing precedence of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use over other activities.

  Course Features:

  • The course of Substance Dependence varies by substance, frequency, intensity, and duration of use. The central features of the dependence syndrome may be overshadowed by the harms to physical and mental health that patients with dependence often experience and for which they frequently seek treatment. Numerous medical conditions can occur due to substance use in the course of Substance Dependence. These conditions tend to be specific for each substance, although some are shared across substances. Negative consequences to physical health reflect either the known pharmacological effects of the relevant substance, the toxic effects of the substance on tissues and organs, or the route of administration (e.g., intravenous self-administration). Examples include alcoholic cirrhosis, infective endocarditis, and HIV/AIDS. Medical conditions caused by substance use should be diagnosed separately.

  Developmental Presentations:

  • Substance Dependence may develop more rapidly during adolescence than is usual during adulthood, especially when there are familial or other risk factors for Substance Dependence.
  • Tolerance to psychoactive substances may develop rapidly in adolescents and young adults, and decline equally rapidly when substance use ceases or is reduced in quantity or frequency.
  • Withdrawal symptoms are well recognized in neonates born to women with Substance Dependence who have used psychoactive substances during pregnancy. However, the presence of a withdrawal state in a neonate should not be the sole basis for a diagnosis of Substance Dependence in the mother.
  • Older adults often have reduced tolerance to substances.

  Sex- and/or Gender-Related Features:

  • Substance Dependence has similar features in men and women, although the intensity of substance use and duration of use necessary to result in dependence may differ by sex.
  • Women are less likely to be involved with the legal system in relation to substance use and therefore may be less likely to come to clinical attention than men. In clinical contexts, women may be reluctant to admit using substances due to prevailing social attitudes and proscriptions.
  • In some societies it may be culturally unacceptable for women to admit to substance use. Specific probing may be necessary to elicit a history of substance use and dependence.

  Boundaries with Other Disorders and with Normality:

  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Intoxication: Episodic or continuous intoxication with sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics is a typical feature of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence, but is not an Essential Feature. Conversely, even if frequent and severe, Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Intoxication alone is not a basis for a diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence. If all diagnostic requirements of both conditions are met for the same episode of care, Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence should be assigned as the primary diagnosis, with an associated diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Intoxication (e.g., Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence with Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Intoxication) if appropriate to the specific clinical situation (e.g., in emergency settings).
  • Boundary with Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics: Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence is often associated with physical and mental health consequences, such as those seen in Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics. In the absence of the Essential Features of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence, a diagnosis of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics can be given when there has been demonstrable harm to the individual’s physical or mental health or that of others. Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics, or Anxiolytics and Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence should not be diagnosed together.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Withdrawal: Many individuals with Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence develop Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Withdrawal upon cessation or reduction in the amount of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics consumed. In such cases, both Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence and Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Withdrawal should be diagnosed. However, Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Withdrawal can be diagnosed in the absence of a diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorders: The impact of repeated or continuous use of substances characteristic of Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence may include Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorders, in which case both Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence and the relevant Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorder should be diagnosed (e.g., Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Dependence with Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic-Induced Delirium).
• 6C44.3 Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic intoxication

  Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic intoxication is a clinically significant transient condition that develops during or shortly after the consumption of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics that is characterised by disturbances in consciousness, cognition, perception, affect, behaviour, or coordination. These disturbances are caused by the known pharmacological effects of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics and their intensity is closely related to the amount of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics consumed. They are time-limited and abate as sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics are cleared from the body. Presenting features may include somnolence, impaired judgment, inappropriate behavior (including sexual behavior or aggression), slurred speech, impaired motor coordination, unsteady gait, mood changes, as well as impaired memory, attention and concentration. Nystagmus (repetitive, uncontrolled eye movements) is a common physical sign. In severe cases stupor or coma may occur. [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • Transient and clinically significant disturbances in consciousness, cognition, perception, affect, behaviour, or coordination that develop during or shortly after the consumption or administration of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics.
  • The symptoms must be compatible with the known pharmacological effects of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics, and their intensity is closely related to the amount of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics consumed.
  • Presenting features of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication may include somnolence, impaired judgment, inappropriate behaviour (including sexual behaviour or aggression), slurred speech, impaired motor coordination, unsteady gait, mood changes, as well as impaired memory, attention and concentration. Nystagmus (repetitive, uncontrolled eye movements) is a common physical sign. In severe cases, stupor or coma may occur.
  • The symptoms of intoxication are time-limited and abate as sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics are cleared from the body.
  • Symptoms are not better accounted for by another medical condition (See below) or another mental disorder, including another Disorder Due to Substance Use (e.g., Withdrawal from a different substance).

  Examples of Medical Conditions That May Present with Symptoms Similar to Substance Intoxication

  • Head injury (with or without cerebral contusion or intracranial haemorrhage or haematoma)
  • Meningitis and encephalitis
  • Diabetic ketoacidosis or hypoglycaemia
  • Hepatic or other metabolic encephalopathy
  • Wernicke’s encephalopathy
  • Electrolyte disturbance
  • Hypoxia or hypercapnia
  • Systemic infection

  Severity of Intoxication Specifier:

  Depending on the specific clinical situation and the information available, Substance Intoxication may be classified according to the level of severity as mild, moderate, or severe. The level of intoxication is usually related to the dose, route of administration, half-life, and duration of action of the substance. Severity of intoxication is also affected by individual variability (e.g., differences in body weight, substance metabolism, or tolerance). Susceptibility to substance intoxication may also be greater in individuals with comorbid medical conditions affecting drug pharmacokinetics (e.g., renal or hepatic insufficiency).

  For some substances, there are specific tests for detecting and determining the concentration of substances in bodily fluids (e.g., blood, urine), which can be important tools for clinical management. However, severity of intoxication should be determined on the basis of clinical assessment, as specified below, and not solely based on the presence and level of the substance in bodily fluids.

  The level of medical attention that may be required in response to substance intoxication varies according to the severity of intoxication and the substance involved, and varies from precautionary observation to urgent intervention to prevent death or permanent harm (e.g., administration of antagonist treatment; intubation).

  The severity of intoxication is classified using the following Extension (X) Codes in addition to the appropriate intoxication category. Extension codes are attached to the category to which they apply using an ampersand (&).

  XS5W Mild

  Mild substance intoxication is a state in which there are clinically recognizable disturbances in psychophysiological functions and responses (e.g., motor coordination, attention and judgement) that vary by substance, but there is little or no disturbance in the level of consciousness.

  The code for Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication, mild is 6C44.3&XS5W.

  XS0T Moderate

  Moderate substance intoxication is a state in which there are marked disturbances in psychophysiological functions and responses (e.g., motor coordination, attention and judgement) that vary by substance, with substantial impairment on tasks that require these functions. There is some disturbance in level of consciousness.

  The code for Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication, moderate is 6C44.3&XS0T.

  XS25 Severe

  Severe substance intoxication is a state in which there are obvious disturbances in psychophysiological functions and responses (e.g., motor coordination, attention and judgement) that vary by substance, with marked disturbance in level of consciousness. There is severe impairment to the extent that the person may not be capable of self-care or self-protection, and may be unable to communicate or cooperate with assessment and intervention.

  The code for Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication, severe is 6C44.3&XS25.

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • Impaired memory in Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication is characterized by anterograde amnesia for the period of intoxication.
  • Sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics are commonly prescribed medications. They can cause intoxication even in therapeutic doses in older individuals as well as in those with medical comorbidities.
  • Some features of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication may be similar to those of Opioid Intoxication or Alcohol Intoxication. Evidence of alcohol use (e.g., the smell of alcohol on the breath) does not rule out concomitant Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication.
  • Where available, laboratory testing for substances that may be contributing to the intoxication or their metabolites may be necessary to identify the intoxicating substance.
  • Psychoactive substances, whether of the same or a different pharmacological class, may interact such that they exacerbate or modify the features of intoxication. In cases of multiple psychoactive substance use in which more than one specific substance can be identified as a cause of the intoxication, it is recommended that the corresponding specific Substance Intoxication categories for each relevant substance be assigned (e.g., 6C40.3 Alcohol Intoxication and 6C44.3 Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication) rather than 6C4F.3 Intoxication Due to Multiple Specified Psychoactive Substances.
  • Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication may occur in the presence of medical conditions that cause impairment of levels of consciousness, cognition, perception, affect, behaviour, or coordination, which should be diagnosed separately. Determination of the aetiology of the disturbances in psychophysiological functions or responses may require longitudinal assessment.

  Boundary with Normality (Threshold):

  • Measurement of the presence or concentration of a substance in breath, blood, saliva, urine or other body fluids may be an important tool in the clinical management of Substance Intoxication. However, detection of a psychoactive substance in body fluids does not constitute a presumptive diagnosis of Substance Intoxication.

  Course Features:

  • The onset of Substance Intoxication varies according to the route of administration, the absorption of the substance and other pharmacokinetic factors. Generally, inhalation (smoking) and intravenous injecting routes lead to more rapid onset of intoxication, though oral ingestion may also lead to intoxication within minutes, depending on the substance.
  • Substance Intoxication is a transient condition, with the duration of intoxication depending on multiple factors including: (1) the dose of the substance taken, (2) the half-life and duration of action of the particular substance, and (3) the formulation of the substance taken (e.g., for pharmaceutical preparations, whether a controlled-release drug has been taken). Intoxication may last from a few minutes up to several days following the episode of use. The intensity of intoxication lessens with time after reaching a peak of absorption, and the effects eventually disappear in the absence of further use of the substance.

  Culture-Related Features:

  • The degree and characteristics of intoxication displayed for a given amount of a psychoactive substance varies considerably with circumstances, with beliefs and expectations about the effects of the substance, and with the cultural acceptability of displaying these effects. These factors result in cultural differences in the extent and manifestations of intoxication.
  • There are also genetic differences in susceptibility to intoxication with specific psychoactive substances associated with certain ethnic groups. Cultural and ethnically linked genetic factors have been better documented for alcohol than for other substances.

  Developmental Presentations:

  • Naïve users including adolescents can show features of intoxication at lower levels of use, reflecting lower physical and learned tolerance.
  • Older adults may have a lower tolerance than younger people to the effects of substances.

  Sex- and/or Gender-Related Features:

  • The amount of substance and duration of use necessary to cause intoxication differs by sex, reflecting differences in body weight and composition.
  • Behaviour while intoxicated may vary by gender, reflecting not only physiological differences, but also cultural differences and role expectations.

  Boundaries with Other Disorders and Conditions (Differential Diagnosis):

  • Boundary with Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics and Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics: In Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics and Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics, consumption or administration of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics results in damage to the person’s physical or mental health (including a Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorder) or in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others. Recovery from Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication is generally complete. Complications due to such effects of intoxication such as injury, the effects of prolonged hyperactivity or inactivity, or other tissue damage should be diagnosed as Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics or Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics, as appropriate. If relevant at the time of the clinical encounter (e.g., in emergency settings), Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication can be given as an associated diagnosis, with Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics or Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics as the primary diagnosis.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence: Episodic or continuous intoxication with sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics is a typical feature of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence. If all diagnostic requirements of both conditions are met for the same episode of care, Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence should be assigned as the primary diagnosis, with an associated diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal: Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal occurs upon cessation or reduction of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics in the context of physiological dependence or when sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics have been taken for a prolonged period or in large amounts. In contrast, the onset of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication occurs immediately or shortly after the consumption of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics. Moreover the intoxication and withdrawal syndromes for sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics are typically quite distinct.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Delirium: Delirium is characterized by disturbances in attention, orientation, and awareness that develop within a short period of time with symptoms that are transient and may fluctuate depending on the underlying aetiology. Delirium often includes disturbance of behaviour and emotion, and may include impairment in multiple cognitive domains. Disturbance of the sleep-wake cycle may also be present. Delirium can be caused by intoxication or withdrawal from substances. When symptoms of Delirium are attributable to Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication, an associated diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Delirium should be assigned in addition to the diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication.
  • Boundary with other Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorders: Mental or behavioural symptoms that arise during Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication should only be used as a basis for diagnosing a Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorder if the intensity or duration of the symptoms is substantially in excess of those that are characteristic of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication and the symptoms are sufficiently severe to warrant specific clinical attention.
  • Boundary with other medical conditions: A variety of medical conditions may produce symptoms that are similar to those of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication. Some of these medical conditions are life-threatening requiring immediate intervention. Evidence of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use (e.g., positive laboratory results) does not rule out the possibility of a comorbid medical condition. These alternative diagnoses must be considered in assessing Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication. Certain medical conditions may also augment or prolong the duration of intoxication. Symptoms of intoxication that persist after they can no longer be reasonably attributed to the pharmacological effects of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics may suggest the presence of another medical condition. If it is determined that Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication is comorbid with a medical condition, both diagnoses should be assigned.
  • Boundary with overdose: When consumption or administration of psychoactive substances results in symptoms of overdose (e.g., coma; life-threatening cardiac or respiratory suppression), it is typically more appropriate to apply a diagnosis from the grouping of Harmful Effects of Substances in the chapter on Injury, Poisoning or Certain Other Consequences of External Causes rather than Substance Intoxication.
• 6C44.4 Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic withdrawal

  Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic withdrawal is a clinically significant cluster of symptoms, behaviours and/or physiological features, varying in degree of severity and duration, that occurs upon cessation or reduction of use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics in individuals who have developed dependence or have used sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics for a prolonged period or in large amounts. Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic withdrawal can also occur when prescribed sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics have been used in standard therapeutic doses. Presenting features of Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic withdrawal may include anxiety, psychomotor agitation, insomnia, increased hand tremor, nausea or vomiting, and transient visual, tactile or auditory illusions or hallucinations. There may be signs of autonomic hyperactivity (e.g., tachycardia, hypertension, sweating), or postural hypotension. The withdrawal state may be complicated by seizures. Less commonly, there may be progression to a more severe withdrawal state characterised by confusion and disorientation, delusions, and more prolonged visual, tactile or auditory hallucinations. In such cases, a separate diagnosis of Sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic-induced delirium should be assigned. [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • The presence of a clinically significant cluster of symptoms, behaviours, and/or physiological features that occurs upon cessation or reduction in the use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics in individuals who have developed dependence on sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics or have used sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics for a prolonged period or in large amounts. Note: Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal can occur when prescribed sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics (e.g., benzodiazepines) have been used in standard therapeutic doses.
  • Presenting features of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal may include anxiety, psychomotor agitation, insomnia, increased hand tremor, nausea or vomiting, and transient visual, tactile or auditory illusions or hallucinations. There may be signs of autonomic hyperactivity (e.g., tachycardia, hypertension, perspiration), or postural hypotension. The withdrawal state may be complicated by seizures.
  • The severity and time course of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal is related to the particular substance taken, its half-life and duration of action, and the amount, frequency and duration of use before cessation or reduction of use.
  • The symptoms are not better accounted for by another medical condition or another mental disorder.

  Specifiers for clinical presentation:

  Because of clinically important variation in their withdrawal syndromes, the following specifiers can be applied to Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal (6C44.4).

  6C44.40 Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal, uncomplicated

  All diagnostic requirements for Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal are met and the withdrawal state is not accompanied by perceptual disturbances or seizures.

  6C44.41 Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal, with perceptual disturbances

  All diagnostic requirements for Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal are met and the withdrawal state is accompanied by perceptual disturbances (e.g., visual or tactile hallucinations or illusions) with intact reality testing. There is no evidence of confusion and other diagnostic requirements for Delirium are not met. The withdrawal state is not accompanied by seizures.

  6C44.42 Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal, with seizures

  All diagnostic requirements for Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal are met and the withdrawal state is accompanied by seizures (i.e., generalized tonic-clonic seizures) but not by perceptual disturbances.

  6C44.43 Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal, with perceptual disturbances and seizures

  All diagnostic requirements for Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal are met and the withdrawal state is accompanied by both seizures (i.e., generalized tonic-clonic seizures) and perceptual disturbances (e.g., visual or tactile hallucinations or illusions) with intact reality testing. Diagnostic requirements for Delirium are not met.

  6C44.4Z Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal, unspecified

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • The withdrawal state associated with short-acting drugs typically has its onset within 12 to 24 hours after cessation of use and has a course of up to 14 days. Withdrawal onset may be delayed by 3 to 5 days with longer-acting drugs and may persist for several weeks.
  • Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal may be complicated by seizures, which are of a tonic-clonic type and may be single or multiple.
  • Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal, especially when untreated, may progress to a very severe form of Delirium, characterized by confusion and disorientation, delusions, and more prolonged visual, tactile or auditory hallucinations. In such cases, a separate diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-induced Delirium should also be assigned.
  • Medical sequelae of complicated withdrawal include status epilepticus, respiratory compromise, and renal failure.
  • Some features of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal such as anxiety, transient illusions or hallucinations, and derealisation may persist for several months after cessation of use.
  • Characteristic features of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal are opposite to the acute pharmacological effects of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics.
  • Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal symptoms become more severe with repeated episodes of withdrawal (termed ‘kindling’), with aging, or in the presence of comorbid medical conditions.

  Boundary with Normality (Threshold):

  • Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal should only be diagnosed when symptoms are consistent with those recognized as occurring upon cessation or reduction in use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics. Recent cessation or reduction of use and the presence of various non-specific transient symptoms is not sufficient to make the diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal.
  • Withdrawal symptoms should be differentiated from the transient physiological aftereffects of intoxication (‘hangover effect’). For example, if low mood and reduction in energy are reported following use of alcohol; sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics and other characteristic features of Substance Withdrawal are not present, a diagnosis of Substance Withdrawal should not be assigned.
  • Some individuals who have previously had Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence may experience symptoms similar to those of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal months after the last use of the substance, particularly when the individual encounters stimuli (e.g., drug paraphernalia) and contexts (e.g., location where use was frequent) previously associated with past sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use. These symptoms are more transient than those observed during Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal and occur exclusively when in contact with associated stimuli and contexts. A diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal should not be assigned under these circumstances.

  Course Features:

  • Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal is time-limited. Factors that influence the features and time course of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal include: (1) the severity of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence, if present, (2) the dose, frequency of use, and duration of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use prior to cessation or reduction of that use, (3) the half-life and duration of action of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics, and (4) the presence of comorbid medical conditions (e.g., metabolic disturbances).

  Culture-Related Features:

  • Symptoms of withdrawal depend largely on the psychotropic characteristics of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics. However, specific cultures may emphasize certain symptoms of withdrawal over others, making it more difficult to conduct a differential diagnosis. In addition, vernacular terms for withdrawal vary greatly.

  Boundaries with Other Disorders and Conditions (Differential Diagnosis):

  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence: Many individuals with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence develop Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal upon cessation or reduction in the amount of the substance. In such cases, both Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence and Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal should be diagnosed. However, Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal can be diagnosed in the absence of a diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence, for example in response to cessation of medically appropriate treatment with sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics (e.g., benzodiazepines), when the other Essential Features of Substance Dependence are not present.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication: The onset of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication occurs immediately or shortly after the consumption of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics. In contrast, Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal occurs upon cessation or reduction in the amount of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics in the context of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence or when sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics have been taken for a prolonged period or in large amounts. For sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics, the intoxication and withdrawal syndromes are typically distinct.
  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Delirium: Delirium is characterized by disturbances in attention, orientation, and awareness that develop within a short period of time with symptoms that are transient and may fluctuate depending on the underlying etiology. Delirium often includes disturbance of behaviour and emotion, and may include impairment in multiple cognitive domains. Disturbance of the sleep-wake cycle may also be present. Delirium may occur as an aspect of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal, particularly during later stages of withdrawal. In such cases, diagnoses of both Substance Withdrawal and Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Delirium should be assigned.
  • Boundary with other Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorders: Mental or behavioural symptoms that arise during Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal should only be used as a basis for diagnosing a Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorder if the intensity or duration of the symptoms is substantially in excess of those that are characteristic of the Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal and the symptoms are sufficiently severe to warrant specific clinical attention. In such cases, if the withdrawal syndrome is ongoing, diagnoses of both Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal and a Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorder may be assigned.
  • Boundary with other mental disorders: Various symptoms associated with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal overlap with those that are characteristic of other mental disorders (e.g., depressive and anxiety symptoms). Symptoms of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal occur in specific temporal relationship to the cessation of use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics and diminish with the passage of time. Evidence supporting a mental disorder diagnosis would include the symptoms preceding the onset of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use, the symptoms persisting for a substantial period of time after cessation of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics or withdrawal (e.g., 1 month or more, depending on the substance), or other evidence of a pre-existing mental disorder (e.g., a history of prior episodes not associated with sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use).
  • Boundary with other medical conditions: It may be difficult to distinguish between various symptoms associated with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal (e.g., nausea or vomiting, seizures, perspiration, postural hypotension, decreased or increased heart rate, insomnia) and those that are characteristic of other medical conditions. Symptoms of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal occur in specific temporal relationship to the cessation of use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics and diminish with the passage of time.
  • Boundary with Foetus or Newborn Affected by Maternal Use of Tobacco, Alcohol, or Other Drugs of Addiction: The ICD-11 chapter on Certain Conditions Arising During the Perinatal Period contains categories for ‘Foetus or newborn affected by maternal use of tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs.’ A neonate exhibiting signs of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal may also be Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal diagnosis in order to guide treatment together with appropriate diagnosis from the chapter on Certain Conditions Originating in the Perinatal Period.
• 6C44.5 Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic-induced delirium

  Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic-induced delirium is characterised by an acute state of disturbed attention and awareness with specific features of delirium that develops during or soon after substance intoxication or withdrawal or during the use of sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics. Specific features of Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic-induced delirium may include confusion and disorientation, paranoid delusions, and recurrent visual, tactile or auditory hallucinations. The amount and duration of sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic use must be capable of producing delirium. The symptoms are not better explained by a primary mental disorder, by use of or withdrawal from a different substance, or by another health condition that is not classified under Mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders. [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • All diagnostic requirements for 6D70 Delirium are met.
  • There is evidence from history, physical examination, or laboratory findings that the neurocognitive disturbance is caused by the direct physiological consequences of the use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics. This judgment depends on establishing that the course of the Delirium (e.g., onset, trajectory of symptoms, eventual remission with elimination of the substance from the body) is consistent with causation by the use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics.
  • The duration or severity of the symptoms is substantially in excess of the characteristic syndrome of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication or Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal.
  • The diagnostic requirements for 6D70.2 Delirium Due to Multiple Etiological Factors are not met.

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal, especially when untreated, may progress to a very severe form of Delirium, characterized by confusion and disorientation, delusions, and more prolonged visual, tactile or auditory hallucinations. In such cases, both Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal and Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-induced Delirium should be diagnosed.

  Note: See 6D70 Delirium for other CDDR sections, including Additional Clinical Features, Boundary with Normality (Threshold), Course Features, Developmental Presentations, Culture-Related Features, and Boundaries with Other Disorders and Conditions (Differential Diagnosis).

• 6C44.6 Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic-induced psychotic disorder

  Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic-induced psychotic disorder is characterised by psychotic symptoms (e.g. delusions, hallucinations, disorganised thinking, grossly disorganised behaviour) that develop during or soon after intoxication with or withdrawal from sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics. The intensity or duration of the symptoms is substantially in excess of psychotic-like disturbances of perception, cognition, or behaviour that are characteristic of intoxication or withdrawal due to sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics. The amount and duration of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use must be capable of producing psychotic symptoms. The symptoms are not better explained by a primary mental disorder (e.g. Schizophrenia, a Mood disorder with psychotic symptoms), as might be the case if the psychotic symptoms preceded the onset of the sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use, if the symptoms persist for a substantial period of time after cessation of the sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use or withdrawal, or if there is other evidence of a pre-existing primary mental disorder with psychotic symptoms (e.g. a history of prior episodes not associated with sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use). [1]

  Essential (Required) Features:

  • The presentation is characterized by psychotic symptoms (e.g., delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized thinking or behaviour) that develop during or soon after intoxication with or withdrawal from sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics.
  • The intensity or duration of the psychotic symptoms is substantially in excess of psychotic-like disturbances of perception, cognition, or behaviour that are characteristic of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication or Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal.
  • The symptoms are not better accounted for by another mental disorder such as Schizophrenia or a Mood Disorder with psychotic symptoms. Evidence supporting a diagnosis of another mental disorder would include psychotic symptoms preceding the onset of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use, the symptoms persisting for a substantial period of time after cessation of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use or withdrawal (e.g., 1 month or more), or other evidence of a pre-existing mental disorder with psychotic symptoms (e.g., a history of prior episodes not associated with sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use).
  • The symptoms are not a manifestation of another medical condition.
  • The symptoms cause significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational or other important areas of functioning.

  When making a diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorder, an additional diagnosis indicating the related pattern of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use should also be assigned. These include Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics, Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics, and Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence. A diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication or Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal may also be assigned if applicable.

  Additional Clinical Features:

  • Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorder may present with varying patterns of symptoms, depending on the specific substance used, that vary according to the characteristics of the user (e.g., genetics, metabolism, personality factors). Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic use in higher amounts or over longer periods of time is more likely to be associated with the development of a Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorder.
  • Symptoms of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorder usually resolve or improve after sustained cessation of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use.
  • The duration of Substance Withdrawal for some substances can be protracted. For substances with more protracted withdrawal periods, the onset of symptoms of Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder can occur up to several weeks after the cessation of substance use. Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder symptoms related to substances with more protracted withdrawal periods may also last for correspondingly longer periods of time.
  • In cases in which multiple psychoactive substance are used, it is often challenging to distinguish which substance is the cause of the Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder. When the specific etiological substance cannot be determined, a diagnosis of Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder Due to Multiple Specified Psychoactive Substances including Medications may assigned. In cases of multiple psychoactive substance use in which more than one specific substance can be identified as a cause of the Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder, the corresponding specific Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder diagnoses should be given instead.

  Boundary with Normality (Threshold):

  • Symptoms of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorders should be differentiated from known side effects of psychoactive medication that are not significantly impairing or distressing and from transient physiological aftereffects of intoxication (‘hangover effect’). The duration or severity of the symptoms in Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorders must be in excess of side effects or ‘hangover effects’ of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics and result in significant distress or impairment of functioning.

  Boundaries with Other Disorders and Conditions (Differential Diagnosis):

  • Boundary with Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication and Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal: Mental or behavioural symptoms that occur during Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication or Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal should only be used as a basis for diagnosing a Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorder if the intensity or duration of the symptoms is substantially in excess of those that are characteristic of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Intoxication or Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Withdrawal and the symptoms are sufficiently severe to warrant specific clinical attention.
  • Boundary with Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics, Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics, or Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence: The impact of repeated or continuous use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics characteristic of Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics and Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence may include Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorder. Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorders can also be associated with a single episode of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use. In such cases, a Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorder should be diagnosed together with a primary diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics, Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics, or Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence.
  • Boundary with mental disorders not induced by sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics: Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorders are differentiated from mental disorders with similar features that are not induced by sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics on the basis of their onset, course and clinical features. A diagnosis of Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorder requires evidence from history, physical or mental examination, or laboratory findings of recent sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use, intoxication or withdrawal. Most Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Mental Disorders resolve or improve within several weeks of cessation of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use. Mental disorders not induced by sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics may precede the onset of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use or may continue to be symptomatic during periods of sustained abstinence. The co-occurrence of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use or withdrawal and onset of symptoms of mental disorders should not be taken as evidence for a presumptive diagnosis of a Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorder. Some people use substances to suppress symptoms of mental disorders (e.g., Schizophrenia and Other Primary Psychotic Disorders, Mood Disorders, Anxiety and Fear-Related Disorders, Personality Disorders) and full symptomatic presentations only emerge upon cessation or reduction in substance use. Furthermore, sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use can exacerbate symptoms or precipitate an episode of a pre-existing mental disorder. Finally, sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic use may be associated with but not aetiologic for new onset of symptoms of a mental disorder. Although a diagnosis of a Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic-Induced Psychotic Disorder should not be assigned under these circumstances, an additional diagnosis of Episode of Harmful Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics, Harmful Pattern of Use of Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics, or Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Dependence may still be appropriate.
• 6C44.7 Certain specified sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytic-induced mental or behavioural disorders

Coded elsewhere

• Hazardous use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics (QE11.2)

References

1. World Health Organization. International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision, for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics (ICD-11 MMS), 2026-01 release. World Health Organization; 2026.
2. World Health Organization. Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Requirements for ICD-11 Mental, Behavioural or Neurodevelopmental Disorders (CDDR). World Health Organization; 2024.

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